Chapter 14. Blocks, Statements, and Patterns

Every statement has a normal mode of execution in which certain computational steps are carried out. The following sections describe the normal mode of execution for each kind of statement.

If all the steps are carried out as described, with no indication of abrupt completion, the statement is said to complete normally. However, certain events may prevent a statement from completing normally:

If such an event occurs, then execution of one or more statements may be terminated before all steps of their normal mode of execution have completed; such statements are said to complete abruptly.

An abrupt completion always has an associated reason, which is one of the following:

The terms "complete normally" and "complete abruptly" also apply to the evaluation of expressions (15.6). The only reason an expression can complete abruptly is that an exception is thrown, because of either a throw with a given value (14.18) or a run-time exception or error (11 (Exceptions), 15.6).

If a statement evaluates an expression, abrupt completion of the expression always causes the immediate abrupt completion of the statement, with the same reason. All succeeding steps in the normal mode of execution are not performed.

Unless otherwise specified in this chapter, abrupt completion of a substatement causes the immediate abrupt completion of the statement itself, with the same reason, and all succeeding steps in the normal mode of execution of the statement are not performed.

Unless otherwise specified, a statement completes normally if all expressions it evaluates and all substatements it executes complete normally.

A block is a sequence of statements, local variable declaration statements, and local class and interface declarations within braces.

A block is executed by executing each of the local variable declaration statements and other statements in order from first to last (left to right). If all of these block statements complete normally, then the block completes normally. If any of these block statements complete abruptly for any reason, then the block completes abruptly for the same reason.

A local class is a nested class (8 (Classes)) whose declaration is immediately contained by a block (14.2).

A local interface is a nested interface (9 (Interfaces)) whose declaration is immediately contained by a block.

The following productions are shown here for convenience:

Local class and interface declarations may be intermixed freely with statements (including local variable declaration statements) in the containing block.

It is a compile-time error if a local class or interface declaration has any of the access modifiers public, protected, or private (6.6).

It is a compile-time error if a local class or interface declaration has the modifier static (8.1.1.4), sealed, or non-sealed (8.1.1.2, 9.1.1.4).

It is a compile-time error if the direct superclass or a direct superinterface of a local class is sealed.

It is a compile-time error if a direct superinterface of a local interface is sealed.

A local class may be a normal class (8.1), an enum class (8.9), or a record class (8.10). Every local normal class is an inner class (8.1.3). Every local enum class and local record class is implicitly static (8.1.1.4), and therefore not an inner class.

A local interface may be a normal interface (9.1), but not an annotation interface (9.6). Every local interface is implicitly static (9.1.1.3).

Like an anonymous class (15.9.5), a local class or interface is not a member of any package, class, or interface (7.1, 8.5). Unlike an anonymous class, a local class or interface has a simple name (6.2, 6.7).

The scope and shadowing of a local class or interface declaration is specified in 6.3 and 6.4.

class Global {
  class Cyclic {}

  void foo() {
    new Cyclic(); // create a Global.Cyclic
    class Cyclic extends Cyclic {} // circular definition

    {
      class Local {}
      {
        class Local {} // compile-time error
      }
      class Local {} // compile-time error
      class AnotherLocal {
        void bar() {
          class Local {} // ok
        }
      }
    }
    class Local {} // ok, not in scope of prior Local
  }
}

A local variable declaration declares and optionally initializes one or more local variables (4.12.3).

See 8.3 for UnannType. The following productions from 4.3, 8.3, and 8.4.1 are shown here for convenience:

A local variable declaration can appear in the following locations:

The rules concerning annotation modifiers for a local variable declaration are specified in 9.7.4 and 9.7.5.

If the keyword final appears as a modifier for a local variable declaration, then the local variable is a final variable (4.12.4).

It is a compile-time error if final appears more than once as a modifier for a local variable declaration.

It is a compile-time error if the LocalVariableType is var and any of the following are true:

var a = 1;      // Legal
var b = 2, c = 3.0;   // Illegal: multiple declarators
var d[] = new int[4]; // Illegal: extra bracket pairs
var e;        // Illegal: no initializer
var f = { 6 };    // Illegal: array initializer
var g = (g = 7);    // Illegal: self reference in initializer

var a = 1;        // a has type 'int'
var b = java.util.List.of(1, 2);  // b has type 'List<Integer>'
var c = "x".getClass();   // c has type 'Class<? extends String>' 
              // (see JLS 15.12.2.6)
var d = new Object() {};  // d has the type of the anonymous class
var e = (CharSequence & Comparable<String>) "x";
              // e has type CharSequence & Comparable<String>
var f = () -> "hello";  // Illegal: lambda not in an assignment context
var g = null;       // Illegal: null type

There are many kinds of statements in the Java programming language. Most correspond to statements in the C and C++ languages, but some are unique.

As in C and C++, the if statement of the Java programming language suffers from the so-called "dangling else problem," illustrated by this misleadingly formatted example:

if (door.isOpen())
  if (resident.isVisible())
    resident.greet("Hello!");
else door.bell.ring();  // A "dangling else"

The problem is that both the outer if statement and the inner if statement might conceivably own the else clause. In this example, one might surmise that the programmer intended the else clause to belong to the outer if statement.

The Java programming language, like C and C++ and many programming languages before them, arbitrarily decrees that an else clause belongs to the innermost if to which it might possibly belong. This rule is captured by the following grammar:

The following productions from 14.9 are shown here for convenience:

Statements are thus grammatically divided into two categories: those that might end in an if statement that has no else clause (a "short if statement") and those that definitely do not.

Only statements that definitely do not end in a short if statement may appear as an immediate substatement before the keyword else in an if statement that does have an else clause.

This simple rule prevents the "dangling else" problem. The execution behavior of a statement with the "no short if" restriction is identical to the execution behavior of the same kind of statement without the "no short if" restriction; the distinction is drawn purely to resolve the syntactic difficulty.

An empty statement does nothing.

Execution of an empty statement always completes normally.

Statements may have label prefixes.

The Identifier is declared to be the label of the immediately contained Statement.

Unlike C and C++, the Java programming language has no goto statement; identifier statement labels are used with break or continue statements (14.15, 14.16) appearing anywhere within the labeled statement.

The scope of a label of a labeled statement is the immediately contained Statement.

It is a compile-time error if the name of a label of a labeled statement is used within the scope of the label as a label of another labeled statement.

There is no restriction against using the same identifier as a label and as the name of a package, class, interface, method, field, parameter, or local variable. Use of an identifier to label a statement does not obscure (6.4.2) a package, class, interface, method, field, parameter, or local variable with the same name. Use of an identifier as a class, interface, method, field, local variable or as the parameter of an exception handler (14.20) does not obscure a statement label with the same name.

A labeled statement is executed by executing the immediately contained Statement.

If the statement is labeled by an Identifier and the contained Statement completes abruptly because of a break with the same Identifier, then the labeled statement completes normally. In all other cases of abrupt completion of the Statement, the labeled statement completes abruptly for the same reason.

class Test {
  char[] value;
  int offset, count;
  int indexOf(TestString str, int fromIndex) {
    char[] v1 = value, v2 = str.value;
    int max = offset + (count - str.count);
    int start = offset + ((fromIndex < 0) ? 0 : fromIndex);
  i:
    for (int i = start; i <= max; i++) {
      int n = str.count, j = i, k = str.offset;
      while (n-- != 0) {
        if (v1[j++] != v2[k++])
          continue i;
      } 
      return i - offset;
    }
    return -1;
  }
}

Certain kinds of expressions may be used as statements by following them with semicolons.

An expression statement is executed by evaluating the expression; if the expression has a value, the value is discarded.

Execution of the expression statement completes normally if and only if evaluation of the expression completes normally.

Unlike C and C++, the Java programming language allows only certain forms of expressions to be used as expression statements. For example, it is legal to use a method invocation expression (15.12):

System.out.println("Hello world");  // OK

but it is not legal to use a parenthesized expression (15.8.5):

(System.out.println("Hello world"));  // illegal

Note that the Java programming language does not allow a "cast to void" - void is not a type - so the traditional C trick of writing an expression statement such as:

(void)... ;  // incorrect!

does not work. On the other hand, the Java programming language allows all the most useful kinds of expressions in expression statements, and it does not require a method invocation used as an expression statement to invoke a void method, so such a trick is almost never needed. If a trick is needed, either an assignment statement (15.26) or a local variable declaration statement (14.4) can be used instead.

The if statement allows conditional execution of a statement or a conditional choice of two statements, executing one or the other but not both.

The Expression must have type boolean or Boolean, or a compile-time error occurs.

An assertion is an assert statement containing a boolean expression. An assertion is either enabled or disabled. If an assertion is enabled, execution of the assertion causes evaluation of the boolean expression and an error is reported if the expression evaluates to false. If the assertion is disabled, execution of the assertion has no effect whatsoever.

To ease the presentation, the first Expression in both forms of the assert statement is referred to as Expression1. In the second form of the assert statement, the second Expression is referred to as Expression2.

It is a compile-time error if Expression1 does not have type boolean or Boolean.

It is a compile-time error if, in the second form of the assert statement, Expression2 is void (15.1).

An assert statement that is executed after its class or interface has completed initialization is enabled if and only if the host system has determined that the top level class or interface that lexically contains the assert statement enables assertions.

Whether a top level class or interface enables assertions is determined no later than the earliest of (i) the initialization of the top level class or interface, and (ii) the initialization of any class or interface nested in the top level class or interface. Whether a top level class or interface enables assertions cannot be changed after it has been determined.

An assert statement that is executed before its class or interface has completed initialization is enabled.

public class Foo {
  public static void main(String[] args) {
    Baz.testAsserts(); 
    // Will execute after Baz is initialized.
  }
}
class Bar {
  static {
    Baz.testAsserts(); 
    // Will execute before Baz is initialized!
  }
}
class Baz extends Bar {
  static void testAsserts() {
    boolean enabled = false;
    assert  enabled = true;
    System.out.println("Asserts " + 
			   (enabled ? "enabled" : "disabled"));
  }
}

Asserts enabled
Asserts disabled

A disabled assert statement does nothing. In particular, neither Expression1 nor Expression2 (if it is present) are evaluated. Execution of a disabled assert statement always completes normally.

An enabled assert statement is executed by first evaluating Expression1. If the result is of type Boolean, it is subjected to unboxing conversion (5.1.8).

If evaluation of Expression1 or the subsequent unboxing conversion (if any) completes abruptly for some reason, the assert statement completes abruptly for the same reason.

Otherwise, execution continues by making a choice based on the value of Expression1:

Typically, assertion checking is enabled during program development and testing, and disabled for deployment, to improve performance.

Because assertions may be disabled, programs must not assume that the expressions contained in assertions will be evaluated. Thus, these boolean expressions should generally be free of side effects. Evaluating such a boolean expression should not affect any state that is visible after the evaluation is complete. It is not illegal for a boolean expression contained in an assertion to have a side effect, but it is generally inappropriate, as it could cause program behavior to vary depending on whether assertions were enabled or disabled.

In light of this, assertions should not be used for argument checking in public methods. Argument checking is typically part of the contract of a method, and this contract must be upheld whether assertions are enabled or disabled.

A secondary problem with using assertions for argument checking is that erroneous arguments should result in an appropriate run-time exception (such as IllegalArgumentException, ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException, or NullPointerException). An assertion failure will not throw an appropriate exception. Again, it is not illegal to use assertions for argument checking on public methods, but it is generally inappropriate. It is intended that AssertionError never be caught, but it is possible to do so, thus the rules for try statements should treat assertions appearing in a try block similarly to the current treatment of throw statements.

The switch statement transfers control to one of several statements or expressions, depending on the value of an expression.

The Expression is called the selector expression. The type of the selector expression must be char, byte, short, int, Character, Byte, Short, Integer, String, or an enum type (8.9), or a compile-time error occurs.

switch (day) {
  ...
  case SATURDAY, SUNDAY :
    System.out.println("It's the weekend!");
    break;
  ...
}

for (i = 0; i < n; ++i) foo();

int q = (n+7)/8;
switch (n%8) {
  case 0: do { foo();  // Great C hack, Tom,
  case 7:    foo();  // but it's not valid here.
  case 6:    foo();
  case 5:    foo();
  case 4:    foo();
  case 3:    foo();
  case 2:    foo();
  case 1:    foo();
      } while (--q > 0);
}

class TooMany {
  static void howMany(int k) {
    switch (k) {
      case 1: System.out.print("one ");
      case 2: System.out.print("too ");
      case 3: System.out.println("many");
    }
  }
  public static void main(String[] args) {
    howMany(3);
    howMany(2);
    howMany(1);
  }
}

many
too many
one too many

class TwoMany {
  static void howMany(int k) {
    switch (k) {
      case 1: System.out.println("one");
          break;  // exit the switch
      case 2: System.out.println("two");
          break;  // exit the switch
      case 3: System.out.println("many");
          break;  // not needed, but good style
    }
  }
  static void howManyAgain(int k) {
    switch (k) {
      case 1 -> System.out.println("one");
      case 2 -> System.out.println("two");
      case 3 -> System.out.println("many");
    }
  }
  public static void main(String[] args) {
    howMany(1);
    howMany(2);
    howMany(3);
    howManyAgain(1);
    howManyAgain(2);
    howManyAgain(3);	
  }
}

one
two
many
one
two
many

The while statement executes an Expression and a Statement repeatedly until the value of the Expression is false.

The Expression must have type boolean or Boolean, or a compile-time error occurs.

A while statement is executed by first evaluating the Expression. If the result is of type Boolean, it is subjected to unboxing conversion (5.1.8).

If evaluation of the Expression or the subsequent unboxing conversion (if any) completes abruptly for some reason, the while statement completes abruptly for the same reason.

Otherwise, execution continues by making a choice based on the resulting value:

The do statement executes a Statement and an Expression repeatedly until the value of the Expression is false.

The Expression must have type boolean or Boolean, or a compile-time error occurs.

A do statement is executed by first executing the Statement. Then there is a choice:

Executing a do statement always executes the contained Statement at least once.

public static String toHexString(int i) {
  StringBuffer buf = new StringBuffer(8);
  do {
    buf.append(Character.forDigit(i & 0xF, 16));
    i >>>= 4;
  } while (i != 0);
  return buf.reverse().toString();
}

The for statement has two forms:

List<? extends Integer> l = ...
for (float i : l) ...

for (Iterator<Integer> #i = l.iterator(); #i.hasNext(); ) {
  float #i0 = (Integer)#i.next();
  ...

int sum(int[] a) {
  int sum = 0;
  for (int i : a) sum += i;
  return sum;
}

Map<String, Integer> histogram = ...;
double total = 0;
for (int i : histogram.values())
  total += i;
for (Map.Entry<String, Integer> e : histogram.entrySet())
  System.out.println(e.getKey() + " " + e.getValue() / total);
}

A break statement transfers control out of an enclosing statement.

There are two kinds of break statement:

A break statement with no label attempts to transfer control to the innermost enclosing switch, while, do, or for statement; this enclosing statement, which is called the break target, then immediately completes normally.

A break statement with label Identifier attempts to transfer control to the enclosing labeled statement (14.7) that has the same Identifier as its label; this enclosing statement, which is called the break target, then immediately completes normally. In this case, the break target need not be a switch, while, do, or for statement.

It is a compile-time error if a break statement has no break target.

It is a compile-time error if the break target contains any method, constructor, instance initializer, static initializer, lambda expression, or switch expression that encloses the break statement. That is, there are no non-local jumps.

Execution of a break statement with no label always completes abruptly, the reason being a break with no label.

Execution of a break statement with label Identifier always completes abruptly, the reason being a break with label Identifier.

It can be seen, then, that a break statement always completes abruptly.

The preceding descriptions say "attempts to transfer control" rather than just "transfers control" because if there are any try statements (14.20) within the break target whose try blocks or catch clauses contain the break statement, then any finally clauses of those try statements are executed, in order, innermost to outermost, before control is transferred to the break target. Abrupt completion of a finally clause can disrupt the transfer of control initiated by a break statement.

class Graph {
  int edges[][];
  public Graph(int[][] edges) { this.edges = edges; }

  public Graph loseEdges(int i, int j) {
    int n = edges.length;
    int[][] newedges = new int[n][];
    for (int k = 0; k < n; ++k) {
edgelist:
{
      int z;
search:
{
      if (k == i) {
        for (z = 0; z < edges[k].length; ++z) {
          if (edges[k][z] == j) break search;
        }
      } else if (k == j) {
        for (z = 0; z < edges[k].length; ++z) {
          if (edges[k][z] == i) break search;
        }
      }

      // No edge to be deleted; share this list.
      newedges[k] = edges[k];
      break edgelist;
} //search

      // Copy the list, omitting the edge at position z.
      int m = edges[k].length - 1;
      int ne[] = new int[m];
      System.arraycopy(edges[k], 0, ne, 0, z);
      System.arraycopy(edges[k], z+1, ne, z, m-z);
      newedges[k] = ne;
} //edgelist
    }
    return new Graph(newedges);
  }
}

A continue statement may occur only in a while, do, or for statement; statements of these three kinds are called iteration statements. Control passes to the loop-continuation point of an iteration statement.

There are two kinds of continue statement:

A continue statement with no label attempts to transfer control to the innermost enclosing while, do, or for statement; this enclosing statement, which is called the continue target, then immediately ends the current iteration and begins a new one.

A continue statement with label Identifier attempts to transfer control to the enclosing labeled statement (14.7) that has the same Identifier as its label; this enclosing statement, which is called the continue target, then immediately ends the current iteration and begins a new one. In this case, the continue target must be a while, do, or for statement, or a compile-time error occurs.

It is a compile-time error if a continue statement has no continue target.

It is a compile-time error if the continue target contains any method, constructor, instance initializer, static initializer, lambda expression, or switch expression that encloses the continue statement. That is, there are no non-local jumps.

Execution of a continue statement with no label always completes abruptly, the reason being a continue with no label.

Execution of a continue statement with label Identifier always completes abruptly, the reason being a continue with label Identifier.

It can be seen, then, that a continue statement always completes abruptly.

See the descriptions of the while statement (14.12), do statement (14.13), and for statement (14.14) for a discussion of the handling of abrupt termination because of continue.

The preceding descriptions say "attempts to transfer control" rather than just "transfers control" because if there are any try statements (14.20) within the continue target whose try blocks or catch clauses contain the continue statement, then any finally clauses of those try statements are executed, in order, innermost to outermost, before control is transferred to the continue target. Abrupt completion of a finally clause can disrupt the transfer of control initiated by a continue statement.

class Graph {
  int edges[][];
  public Graph(int[][] edges) { this.edges = edges; }

  public Graph loseEdges(int i, int j) {
    int n = edges.length;
    int[][] newedges = new int[n][];
edgelists:
    for (int k = 0; k < n; ++k) {
      int z;
search:
{
      if (k == i) {
        for (z = 0; z < edges[k].length; ++z) {
          if (edges[k][z] == j) break search;
        }
      } else if (k == j) {
        for (z = 0; z < edges[k].length; ++z) {
          if (edges[k][z] == i) break search;
        }
      }

      // No edge to be deleted; share this list.
      newedges[k] = edges[k];
      continue edgelists;
} //search

      // Copy the list, omitting the edge at position z.
      int m = edges[k].length - 1;
      int ne[] = new int[m];
      System.arraycopy(edges[k], 0, ne, 0, z);
      System.arraycopy(edges[k], z+1, ne, z, m-z);
      newedges[k] = ne;
    } //edgelists
    return new Graph(newedges);
  }
}

A return statement returns control to the invoker of a method (8.4, 15.12) or constructor (8.8, 15.9).

There are two kinds of return statement:

A return statement attempts to transfer control to the invoker of the innermost enclosing constructor, method, or lambda expression; this enclosing declaration or expression is called the return target. In the case of a return statement with value Expression, the value of the Expression becomes the value of the invocation.

It is a compile-time error if a return statement has no return target.

It is a compile-time error if the return target contains either (i) an instance or static initializer that encloses the return statement, or (ii) a switch expression that encloses the return statement.

It is a compile-time error if the return target of a return statement with no value is a method, and that method is not declared void.

It is a compile-time error if the return target of a return statement with value Expression is either a constructor, or a method that is declared void.

It is a compile-time error if the return target of a return statement with value Expression is a method with declared return type T, and the type of Expression is not assignable compatible (5.2) with T.

Execution of a return statement with no value always completes abruptly, the reason being a return with no value.

Execution of a return statement with value Expression first evaluates the Expression. If the evaluation of the Expression completes abruptly for some reason, then the return statement completes abruptly for that reason. If evaluation of the Expression completes normally, producing a value V, then the return statement completes abruptly, the reason being a return with value V.

It can be seen, then, that a return statement always completes abruptly.

The preceding descriptions say "attempts to transfer control" rather than just "transfers control" because if there are any try statements (14.20) within the method or constructor whose try blocks or catch clauses contain the return statement, then any finally clauses of those try statements will be executed, in order, innermost to outermost, before control is transferred to the invoker of the method or constructor. Abrupt completion of a finally clause can disrupt the transfer of control initiated by a return statement.

A throw statement causes an exception (11 (Exceptions)) to be thrown. The result is an immediate transfer of control (11.3) that may exit multiple statements and multiple constructor, instance initializer, static initializer and field initializer evaluations, and method invocations until a try statement (14.20) is found that catches the thrown value. If no such try statement is found, then execution of the thread (17 (Threads and Locks)) that executed the throw is terminated (11.3) after invocation of the uncaughtException method for the thread group to which the thread belongs.

The Expression in a throw statement must either denote a variable or value of a reference type which is assignable (5.2) to the type Throwable, or denote the null reference, or a compile-time error occurs.

The reference type of the Expression will always be a class type (since no interface types are assignable to Throwable) which is not parameterized (since a subclass of Throwable cannot be generic (8.1.2)).

At least one of the following three conditions must be true, or a compile-time error occurs:

The exception types that a throw statement can throw are specified in 11.2.2.

A throw statement first evaluates the Expression. Then:

It can be seen, then, that a throw statement always completes abruptly.

If there are any enclosing try statements (14.20) whose try blocks contain the throw statement, then any finally clauses of those try statements are executed as control is transferred outward, until the thrown value is caught. Note that abrupt completion of a finally clause can disrupt the transfer of control initiated by a throw statement.

If a throw statement is contained in a method declaration or a lambda expression, but its value is not caught by some try statement that contains it, then the invocation of the method completes abruptly because of the throw.

If a throw statement is contained in a constructor declaration, but its value is not caught by some try statement that contains it, then the class instance creation expression that invoked the constructor will complete abruptly because of the throw (15.9.4).

If a throw statement is contained in a static initializer (8.7), then a compile-time check (11.2.3) ensures that either its value is always an unchecked exception or its value is always caught by some try statement that contains it. If at run time, despite this check, the value is not caught by some try statement that contains the throw statement, then the value is rethrown if it is an instance of class Error or one of its subclasses; otherwise, it is wrapped in an ExceptionInInitializerError object, which is then thrown (12.4.2).

If a throw statement is contained in an instance initializer (8.6), then a compile-time check (11.2.3) ensures that either its value is always an unchecked exception or its value is always caught by some try statement that contains it, or the type of the thrown exception (or one of its superclasses) occurs in the throws clause of every constructor of the class.

By convention, user-declared throwable types should usually be declared to be subclasses of class Exception, which is a subclass of class Throwable (11.1.1).

A synchronized statement acquires a mutual-exclusion lock (17.1) on behalf of the executing thread, executes a block, then releases the lock. While the executing thread owns the lock, no other thread may acquire the lock.

The type of Expression must be a reference type, or a compile-time error occurs.

A synchronized statement is executed by first evaluating the Expression. Then:

The locks acquired by synchronized statements are the same as the locks that are acquired implicitly by synchronized methods (8.4.3.6). A single thread may acquire a lock more than once.

Acquiring the lock associated with an object does not in itself prevent other threads from accessing fields of the object or invoking un-synchronized methods on the object. Other threads can also use synchronized methods or the synchronized statement in a conventional manner to achieve mutual exclusion.

class Test {
  public static void main(String[] args) {
    Test t = new Test();
    synchronized(t) {
      synchronized(t) {
        System.out.println("made it!");
      }
    }
  }
}

made it!

A try statement executes a block. If a value is thrown and the try statement has one or more catch clauses that can catch it, then control will be transferred to the first such catch clause. If the try statement has a finally clause, then another block of code is executed, no matter whether the try block completes normally or abruptly, and no matter whether a catch clause is first given control.

See 8.3 for UnannClassType. The following productions from 4.3, 8.3, and 8.4.1 are shown here for convenience:

The Block immediately after the keyword try is called the try block of the try statement.

The Block immediately after the keyword finally is called the finally block of the try statement.

A try statement may have catch clauses, also called exception handlers.

A catch clause declares exactly one parameter, which is called an exception parameter.

It is a compile-time error if final appears more than once as a modifier for an exception parameter declaration.

The scope and shadowing of an exception parameter is specified in 6.3 and 6.4.

References to an exception parameter from a nested class or interface, or a lambda expression, are restricted, as specified in 6.5.6.1.

An exception parameter may denote its type as either a single class type or a union of two or more class types (called alternatives). The alternatives of a union are syntactically separated by |.

A catch clause whose exception parameter is denoted as a single class type is called a uni-catch clause.

A catch clause whose exception parameter is denoted as a union of types is called a multi-catch clause.

Each class type used in the denotation of the type of an exception parameter must be the class Throwable or a subclass of Throwable, or a compile-time error occurs.

It is a compile-time error if a type variable is used in the denotation of the type of an exception parameter.

It is a compile-time error if a union of types contains two alternatives D_i and D_j (i ≠ j) where D_i is a subtype of D_j (4.10.2).

The declared type of an exception parameter that denotes its type with a single class type is that class type.

The declared type of an exception parameter that denotes its type as a union with alternatives D₁ | D₂ | ... | D_n is lub(D₁, D₂, ..., D_n).

An exception parameter of a multi-catch clause is implicitly declared final if it is not explicitly declared final.

It is a compile-time error if an exception parameter that is implicitly or explicitly declared final is assigned to within the body of the catch clause.

An exception parameter of a uni-catch clause is never implicitly declared final, but it may be explicitly declared final or be effectively final (4.12.4).

An implicitly final exception parameter is final by virtue of its declaration, while an effectively final exception parameter is (as it were) final by virtue of how it is used. An exception parameter of a multi-catch clause is implicitly declared final, so will never occur as the left-hand operand of an assignment operator, but it is not considered effectively final.

If an exception parameter is effectively final (in a uni-catch clause) or implicitly final (in a multi-catch clause), then adding an explicit final modifier to its declaration will not introduce any compile-time errors. On the other hand, if the exception parameter of a uni-catch clause is explicitly declared final, then removing the final modifier may introduce compile-time errors because the exception parameter, now considered to be effectively final, can no longer longer be referenced by anonymous and local class declarations in the body of the catch clause. If there are no compile-time errors, it is possible to further change the program so that the exception parameter is re-assigned in the body of the catch clause and thus will no longer be considered effectively final.

The exception types that a try statement can throw are specified in 11.2.2.

The relationship of the exceptions thrown by the try block of a try statement and caught by the catch clauses (if any) of the try statement is specified in 11.2.3.

Exception handlers are considered in left-to-right order: the earliest possible catch clause accepts the exception, receiving as its argument the thrown exception object, as specified in 11.3.

try {
  ... throws ReflectiveOperationException ...
}
catch (ClassNotFoundException | IllegalAccessException ex) {
  ... body ...
}

try {
  ... throws ReflectiveOperationException ...
}
catch (final ClassNotFoundException ex1) {
  final ReflectiveOperationException ex = ex1;
  ... body ...
}
catch (final IllegalAccessException ex2) {
  final ReflectiveOperationException ex = ex2;
  ... body ...
}

A finally clause ensures that the finally block is executed after the try block and any catch block that might be executed, no matter how control leaves the try block or catch block. Handling of the finally block is rather complex, so the two cases of a try statement with and without a finally block are described separately (14.20.1, 14.20.2).

A try statement is permitted to omit catch clauses and a finally clause if it is a try-with-resources statement (14.20.3).

class BlewIt extends Exception {
  BlewIt() { }
  BlewIt(String s) { super(s); }
}
class Test {
  static void blowUp() throws BlewIt { throw new BlewIt(); }

  public static void main(String[] args) {
    try {
      blowUp();
    } catch (RuntimeException r) {
      System.out.println("Caught RuntimeException");
    } catch (BlewIt b) {
      System.out.println("Caught BlewIt");
    }
  }
}

Caught BlewIt

class BlewIt extends Exception {
  BlewIt() { }
  BlewIt(String s) { super(s); }
}
class Test {
  static void blowUp() throws BlewIt {
    throw new NullPointerException();
  }
  public static void main(String[] args) {
    try {
      blowUp();
    } catch (BlewIt b) {
      System.out.println("Caught BlewIt");
    } finally {
      System.out.println("Uncaught Exception");
    }
  }
}

Uncaught Exception
Exception in thread "main" java.lang.NullPointerException
    at Test.blowUp(Test.java:7)
    at Test.main(Test.java:11)

try (VariableAccess ...)
  Block

try (T #r = VariableAccess ...) {
  Block
}

try ({VariableModifier} R Identifier = Expression ...)
  Block

{
  final {VariableModifierNoFinal} R Identifier = Expression;
  Throwable #primaryExc = null;

  try ResourceSpecification_tail
    Block
  catch (Throwable #t) {
    #primaryExc = #t;
    throw #t;
  } finally {
    if (Identifier != null) {
      if (#primaryExc != null) {
        try {
          Identifier.close();
        } catch (Throwable #suppressedExc) {
          #primaryExc.addSuppressed(#suppressedExc);
        }
      } else {
        Identifier.close();
      }
    }
  }
}

try ResourceSpecification
  Block
[Catches]
[Finally]

try {
  try ResourceSpecification
    Block
}
[Catches]
[Finally]

A yield statement transfers control by causing an enclosing switch expression (15.28) to produce a specified value.

A yield statement attempts to transfer control to the innermost enclosing switch expression; this enclosing expression, which is called the yield target, then immediately completes normally and the value of the Expression becomes the value of the switch expression.

It is a compile-time error if a yield statement has no yield target.

It is a compile-time error if the yield target contains any method, constructor, instance initializer, static initializer, or lambda expression that encloses the yield statement. That is, there are no non-local jumps.

It is a compile-time error if the Expression of a yield statement is void (15.1).

Execution of a yield statement first evaluates the Expression. If the evaluation of the Expression completes abruptly for some reason, then the yield statement completes abruptly for that reason. If evaluation of the Expression completes normally, producing a value V, then the yield statement completes abruptly, the reason being a yield with value V.

It can be seen, then, that a yield statement always completes abruptly.

class Test {
  enum Day {
    MONDAY, TUESDAY, WEDNESDAY, THURSDAY, FRIDAY,
	SATURDAY, SUNDAY
  }

  public int calculate(Day d) {
    return switch (d) {
	  case SATURDAY, SUNDAY -> d.ordinal();
      default -> {
        int len = d.toString().length();
        yield len*len;
      }
    };
  }
}

It is a compile-time error if a statement cannot be executed because it is unreachable.

This section is devoted to a precise explanation of the word "reachable." The idea is that there must be some possible execution path from the beginning of the constructor, method, instance initializer, or static initializer that contains the statement to the statement itself. The analysis takes into account the structure of statements. Except for the special treatment of while, do, and for statements whose condition expression has the constant value true, the values of expressions are not taken into account in the flow analysis.

{
  int n = 5;
  while (n > 7) k = 2;
}

The rules in this section define two technical terms:

The rules allow a statement to complete normally only if it is reachable.

Two further technical terms are used:

The rules are as follows:

One might expect the if statement to be handled in the following manner:

This approach would be consistent with the treatment of other control structures. However, in order to allow the if statement to be used conveniently for "conditional compilation" purposes, the actual rules differ.

As an example, the following statement results in a compile-time error:

while (false) { x=3; }

because the statement x=3; is not reachable; but the superficially similar case:

if (false) { x=3; }

does not result in a compile-time error. An optimizing compiler may realize that the statement x=3; will never be executed and may choose to omit the code for that statement from the generated class file, but the statement x=3; is not regarded as "unreachable" in the technical sense specified here.

The rationale for this differing treatment is to allow programmers to define "flag" variables such as:

static final boolean DEBUG = false;

and then write code such as:

if (DEBUG) { x=3; }

The idea is that it should be possible to change the value of DEBUG from false to true or from true to false and then compile the code correctly with no other changes to the program text.

Conditional compilation comes with a caveat. If a set of classes that use a "flag" variable - or more precisely, any static constant variable (4.12.4) - are compiled and conditional code is omitted, it does not suffice later to distribute just a new version of the class or interface that contains the definition of the flag. The classes that use the flag will not see its new value, so their behavior may be surprising. In essence, a change to the value of a flag is binary compatible with pre-existing binaries (no LinkageError occurs) but not behaviorally compatible.

Another reason for "inlining" values of static constant variables is because of switch statements. They are the only kind of statement that relies on constant expressions, namely that each case label of a switch statement must be a constant expression whose value is different than every other case label. case labels are often references to static constant variables so it may not be immediately obvious that all the labels have different values. If it is proven that there are no duplicate labels at compile time, then inlining the values into the class file ensures there are no duplicate labels at run time either - a very desirable property.

class Flags { static final boolean DEBUG = true; }
class Test {
  public static void main(String[] args) {
    if (Flags.DEBUG)
      System.out.println("DEBUG is true");
  }
}

DEBUG is true

class Flags { static final boolean DEBUG = false; }

DEBUG is true

interface Flags { boolean DEBUG = true; }
class Test {
  public static void main(String[] args) {
    if (Flags.DEBUG)
      System.out.println("DEBUG is true");
  }
}

interface Flags {
  boolean debug = Boolean.valueOf(true).booleanValue();
}

A pattern describes a test that can be performed on a value. Patterns appear as operands of statements and expressions, which provide the values to be tested. Patterns declare local variables, known as pattern variables.

The process of testing a value against a pattern is known as pattern matching. If a value successfully matches a pattern, then the process of pattern matching initializes the pattern variable declared by the pattern.

Pattern variables are only in scope (6.3) where pattern matching succeeds and thus the pattern variables will have been initialized. It is not possible to use a pattern variable that has not been initialized.